The application of identity as an 'unfixed' and 'unstable' state within visual arts.

Nigel Williams BA(Hons) PGCE(FE)

Identity as an 'unfixed' and 'unstable' state.

There are a number of complex theories which centre upon questions of identity. There are many issues that need to be considered when discussing this complicated area of study. I propose to examine some of these issues of identity with the support of the work of several artists whom I feel, at least in some part, directly or otherwise, deal with identity as an influence within their work.

"Personal identity within philosophical accounts almost always centres on the question of what internal feature of the person establishes the continuity or self-identity of the person through time". (1)

Judith Butler, in her book "Gender Trouble" warns us to be wary of considering the subject of identity as if there are set attributes within us that create or control the person we project outwardly towards others. We often believe that within each person there is a true and fixed identity. The theorist Foucault rejected this view. Foucault explained 'identity' as something we communicate to others during our interactions with them, a shifting and temporary construction. Because we interact with many people, from all parts of our society, it is reasonable to accept Psychologist Kath Woodward's proposition that perhaps we actually have more than one identity. And that we can call upon any of these identities at any particular time. Woodward pointed out that identity will need to change in relation to with whom we interact.

William James, in his book "Principles of Psychology" (1890), also recognised this need to adapt to circumstances. He said "A man has as many social selves as there are individuals who recognise him and carry an image of him in their minds". For example, many people combine the life of a student, a parent and an employee at the same time. Subtle and not so subtle variations of identity may well be called upon for each of these roles. (2) It would be perhaps wise to attempt to illuminate the difference between identity and personality at this stage. Woodward is keen to point out the often held misconception that personality and identity are one and the same. Personality is a construct of traits, often common to many other people, for example - shy, timid, violent, or self confident. However, identity is perhaps best explained as providing "a link between individuals and the world in which they live," this is the process of association that seems to be central to many of the arguments. (3) Charles Cooley (1902) and George H. Mead (1934) both also agreed with the theory of interaction and attributed the 'self' as being mainly a social construct. William James had also acknowledged this, to some extent, in his theory concerning the 'Me' and 'I', in which the 'Me' is the part of our identity that we wish to show to others whilst he still believed there to be another uncontrollable influence within us which he called the 'I'. James saw the 'I' as the central core of our person. Cooley was perhaps ahead of his time with his "Looking Glass" theory of 'self', whereby he said the self is a reflection, largely from the minds of others. This therefore also being recognition of the social interaction of the process of association. (4) Erikson (1968) defined this process further by suggesting that that association occurs from a young age and continues throughout our development into adulthood. He claimed that identity formation "arises from the selective repudiation and mutual assimilation of childhood identifications" (5) Erikson continued to argue that 'children at different stages of their development identify with those part aspects of people by which they themselves are most immediately affected'. They consciously take what they need and discard what they don't. (6) Indeed, from the moment we are born we are categorised as either male or female and cultural specific sets of roles are enforced to ensure a child follows the accepted norms. But complex gender issues find a way to usurp and revise these carefully constructed role models. Judith Butler does not underestimate the importance of gender within our psyche and suggests that we should consider gender issues before embarking upon any other consideration of identity. (7) So we can see that our environment plays a vital part in our early development, but as we and grow and gain experience of other environments our earliest sources of reference are amended. What was once acceptable may no longer be so. Gender identity is also be affected by this process of evolution. Freud also suggested that gender relates to a child's self-categorisation, primarily by identifying with others perceived to be the same - physically. But Freud related these issues of categorisation to the recognition of a physical 'lack' and that "a girl's gender was significantly formed by the absence of a penis." (8) Freud failed to truly recognise that being a man or a woman is not a fixed state and that "It is a condition actively under construction." (9) Connell argues that none of us are actually born as what we know to be a man or a woman. Connell claims that we also acquire these labels through our associations. We now have the technological ability to physically alter our sex to suit our sense of identity. Although this is often seen as being outside the norms of society, this is not as unusual as it first may seem. In nature, sexual reproduction does not always depend upon physical specialisation between sexes. The humble earthworm is an example of a hermaphrodite, able to perform both roles of male and female quite adequately. (10) The earthworm may not make a conscious decision to become one or the other of the sexes it contains, but neither does it 'lack' either in its reproduction function. So, arguments based upon anatomical differences can be problematic. Genetic composition may well determine the sex of a person, but chromosomal differences can equally create dilemmas.

"Masculine and feminine identities are not fixed, partly because identities are multidimensional. Diversity arises through the existence of masculinities and femininities." (11)

Although Freud would clearly dismiss the relevance of the earlier analogy of the earthworm within this argument of identity, it is necessary to consider the association or classification problems faced by those who clearly have trouble relating to either distinction of male or female. Freud's work with identity remains the basis upon which many other theories have been spawned. However, he is also perhaps largely responsible for unconsciously highlighting deeper imbalances and underlying penile politics within our modern and post modern society.

So is there really such a thing as a single personal identity, if we can slip between varieties of guises at will, as suggested by Woodward, to suit our immediate needs? Psychologists still recognise that there are also other structures at work which are totally beyond our control, but not those internal uncontrollable influences suggested and already largely discounted by Judith Butler earlier in this essay. The lack of substantial material resources, for example, places limits on social interactions. Identification with certain perceived 'higher' social groups can be pretty difficult for those without the resources to gain access to exclusive clubs or even to certain countries. If identity depends upon interaction then this is a major hurdle for certain sections of society. Class division is an issue that this present Labour Government may well wish to play down, and there may be some evidence that class divisions have, to a small extent, been eroded. However, "some sociologists argue that consumption [or consumerism] has replaced class as the key factor structuring social division and identity." (12) Perhaps we can identify with possessions easier than with class, after all isn't it just a simple matter of checking out the car on a neighbours drive? So we can see that both associations and also disassociations are major factors within the construct of identity. (13) But does this process of association and disassociation provide us with a definitive means to understand others? And, can we use this knowledge to gain a true insight to the identity of the individual?

Our physical appearance changes with time. If we flick through family photograph albums we can get a shocking insight to this process. However, these images are simply representations of a body at a single time and place. They cannot possibly be an insight to the identity of the person captured within the photograph, in the same way that fleeting encounters are just a single impression in place and time. They cannot give us the complete picture of the individual. If we were to take a photograph of ourselves each year and then studied them in our old age we would be presented with a large collection of differing images, much like the self portraits painted by Rembrandt during his lifetime. Like our appearance, our experience changes with time. With time our knowledge expands and our occupations may change as a result. So which, if any, of the photos within the album is our true identity? (14)

Since the invention of film, and especially television, society has gained easy access to images of people from different social backgrounds and offers identification with a world beyond the reach of the majority of people.

Perhaps the work of artist Cindy Sherman best highlights the problems of this form of remote association. Sherman, although trained as a painter, has worked with photography for the major part of the last thirty years. She creates images to set themes and presents the viewer with an intriguing dichotomy. Although the photographs invariably feature her within the frame, they still manage to remain anonymous. Sherman, through her work, illustrates the futility of seeking identity from within an image. (15)

(Fig i). Untitled A-E, 1975, by Cindy Sherman. Collection of the
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Gift of Lannan Foundation.

The five images (Fig i above) all feature Cindy Sherman. Each could simply be a snap shot of someone from our own family, or a still from a film. The lack of a title doesn't help us decide how to identify with any of the images. Even though we may be aware that they all feature the same person, not one of the images tells us anything about the identity of that person, beyond the stereotypical considerations.

Many artists also constantly struggle with issues of professional identity. A trawl through most retrospective exhibitions will often illustrate the metamorphosis of this identity. David Hockney, for example, has maintained strong political and social views throughout his life, but within his work we can see a number of changes that have had a dramatic influence upon his perception as a leading international figure. One of these changes can be traced to his enrolment to the Royal College of Art in 1959. This three-year post graduate course in painting exposed the artist to new influences, and this was reflected when he played down his earlier concerns with social realism and began to explore the realms of abstract painting, influenced by the works of Jackson Pollock, Alan Davie and Roger Hilton. (16)

Hockney exhibits his preoccupation with style during the period immediately following graduation. Between 1965 and 67 he was drawn between Modernist abstraction and Minimalism. These interludes have been revisited and developed, along with his reasons for producing work. His photo-collage works of the early eighties illustrating his wish to intensify the viewer's awareness of the activity that is required to make images signify, (17) this being in contrast to his earlier drive to raise the acceptance of figurative work in Modernist painting during the seventies. (18)

Artists approach the issues of identity in many ways. The eccentric duo Gilbert and George have openly explored a wide range of identity issues, whilst artist Rachel Whiteread addresses them almost subliminally within her explorations of space.

Identity issues also affect us on a national and international level. The passing of the twentieth century, and the arrival of the twenty-first, is a time when national and international borders are shifting and merging. This is not a new process, it has occurred throughout our recorded history, but it is one that is sometimes met with opposition as well as with optimism. National identities, often defined by violence and spawned as a result of a deep rooted fear of difference, become blurred. As we discussed earlier, difference is an integral part of the process of identification and if this is based upon fear we are presented with major problems. As smaller nations become part of a greater European state old adversaries become uncomfortable bedfellows. This process of assimilation will filter through to the individual consciousness. Once again we find ourselves having to reconsider who we are within this new collective identity. Anthropologist and philosopher Ernest Gellner (1983) links modernisation and industrialisation with the origins of concept of 'nation.' He points out that for a nation to function effectively the complex division of labour within the industrialised economy must share a simple medium of communication. "Minority, folk and peripheral languages or cultures are effectively squeezed out of the system or are actively quashed to create a single mass national culture." This process can be seen within the United Kingdom with the erosion of many of the Celtic tongues, and especially that of the Welsh language during the mid part of the twentieth century. (19) But Anthony D. Smith (1986, 1995), although agreeing with Gellner's views on the influence of modernisation and industrialisation within the formation of national identity, also believes that "there has to be some pre-existing community, bound by language or culture or religion from which a modern nation can be forged." (20)

Welsh contemporary artist Iwan Bala struggles to resolve his understanding of these issues within twenty-first century Wales. Bala sees the role of artists in Wales as that of custodians of a cultural aesthetic. Whether there is evidence to support the premise that a 'Welsh aesthetic' ever existed is debatable, but Bala's work calls upon Celtic mythology to reinforce his place within the evolution of Wales towards a recognisable national identity, wrapped within the resurgence of the Welsh language. (21)

(Fig ii) "Omphalos" by Iwan Bala Mixed Media.

Tim Davies, another contemporary Welsh artist, calls upon political and other social and historical events to understand his place within a larger national identity. Although firmly anchored to a specific time and place, Davies' work also has an international message, beyond categorical placement. Davies is aware of the need for nations to face up to the process of evolution, due to geographical and economic shifts, but is also acutely aware of the "gulf between disposable and unobtainable wealth", which is often laid bare as a result of this assimilation. (22)

In "Nage" (Fig iii Below) Davies presents us with a stretched woollen blanket with the word 'Nage' repetitiously burned into the wool. The word nage translates as 'no' or 'it is not', and is his heartfelt response to his loss of the mother tongue of his family (Welsh), something only recently lost from his generation. The process of burning echoes his desire to burn the memory of the language into the consciousness of a nation struggling to retain a unique identity within the new European state.

(Fig iii) "Nage" (detail) 1994 Mixed Media by Tim Davies.

But, of course, no nation can be populated by a race of single cultural influence. Modern society within Britain has to balance the needs of a multi cultural influence. Other nations have had to deal with the displacement of the aboriginal people as a result of unwelcome immigration.

Australian artist Gordon Bennett has struggled with his identity in a country that has, until recently, stubbornly refused to accept responsibility for the cultural decimation of the aboriginal people.

Bennett is an extremely thoughtful and philosophical artist with an urgent mission to understand both his own identity and that of the new Australia. Born of an Australian aboriginal mother, with a Scottish father, Bennett experienced the turmoil of failing to identify with either race of his heritage. He felt pulled between two extreme poles and found his art to be the only means to reconcile the issues of identity he faced.

Bennett draws from Minimalism, De Stijl and Abstract Expressionism, forcing features of these movements into a context of human relations that is at once global and national. Bennett deals with postcolonial theory, attempting reconcile the post-modern country of today far removed from the horrors of the colonial past.

(Fig iv) "Captain Cook Taking Possession of the Australian Continent on Behalf of the British Crown
AD 1770", engraving after Gilfillan, oil on canvas by Samuel Calvert.

In this image (Fig iv, above) we see the romantic image of the great explorer Captain Cook being greeted by an aboriginal man-servant, carrying a tray of refreshments. The scene of settlers going about their business of survival detracts somewhat from the lines of soldiers in the background. However, in Bennett's version of the image the artist attempts to re-appropriate the scene on behalf of the native people. Using the original painting as a basis for his own, Bennett paints the scene using the spots of colour commonly associated with aboriginal painting. He emphasises the role of the black servant by painting him clearly. Bennett has used this method of representation frequently and is not afraid to portray the horrors of rape and murder that accompanied colonisation.

"Possession Island", 1991 by Gordon Bennett.

Nicholas Thomas, in his book "Possessions, Indigenous Art / Colonial Culture" suggests that Bennett "has something in common with the vandal who defaces the monument, but goes beyond mere decapitation or graffiti to suggest a reconstitution of national narrative, albeit one inescapably defined by pain, violence and contradiction." (23)

It may well be extremely difficult, if not impossible to fully resolve some of the problematic issues of identity through art alone. However, art provides an opportunity for interaction and association and it is by confronting issues that cause us the greatest pain that we can come to terms with what makes us unique. Bennett, Sherman and Bala, amongst others, can provide the platform for discourse but we need to recognise that their structures of identity will never be the same as ours and that we need to continue to attempt to recognise and resolve our own issues. Art can help us work through these areas and in the process help others to begin their own search for identity.

REFERENCES
1. Judith Butler, "Gender Trouble" (London: Routledge, 1990) p.16. para 3.
2. Kath Woodward, "Questioning Identity: Gender, Class, Nation" (London: Routledge, 2000) p.8.
3. Ibid.p.7.
4. R. Gross, Et al, "Challenges in Psychology" (London: Hodder & Stoughton. 1977.
5. Erikson, (1968) Cited in "Race, Education and Identity" Edited by G.K. Verma & C. Bagley (London: Macmillan Press. 1979). p.157 para 3.
6. Ibid. p.158).
7. J. Butler, op.cit. p.16 para 3.
8. K. Woodward, op.cit. p.49.
9. R.W. Connell, "Gender" (London: Blackwell, 2002) p.4, para 3.
10. Ibid. page 29.
11. K. Woodward, op.cit. p.60, para 3.
12. Ibid. p.107.
13. Ibid. pp.7 & 8.
14. Ibid. p.9
15. Sue Griffith - "Identity", Swansea Institute lecture 25/11/02.
16. P. Melia, "David Hockney" (Manchester University Press, 1995) pp. 3 & 4.
17. Ibid. p.7, para 2.
18. Ibid. p.6, para 3.
19. K. Woodward, op.cit. p.126, para 1.
20. Ibid. p. 127, para 2.
21. I. Bala, "Certain Welsh Artists - Custodial Aesthetics". (Seren. 1999).
22. D. Alston, et al, "Process - Explorations of the Work of Tim Davies" (Seren. 2002) p.81, para 4
23. N. Thomas, "Possessions - Indigenous Art / Colonial Culture" (London: Thames & Hudson, 1999) pp.197-208.

BILIOGRAPHY

Alston. A. et al, Process - Explorations of the Work of Tim Davies ( Seren: 2002).

Butler. J., Gender Trouble (London: Routledge, 1990).

Bala. I., Certain Welsh Artists - Custodial Aesthetics (Seren: 1999).

Connell. R.W., Gender (London: Blackwell, 2002).

Cruz. A. et al, Cindy Sherman - Retrospective (London: Thames & Hudson, 1997).

Davies. J., A History of Wales (London: Penguin Books, 1990).

Eysenck. M.W., Individual Differences (Hove: LEA, 1994).

Gross. R. et al, Challenges in Psychology (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1997).

Jahn. W., The Art of Gilbert and George (London: Thames & Hudson, 1989).

Krauss. R. et al, Rachel Whiteread - Shedding Life (Liverpool: Tate Gallery, 1993).

Lingwood. J., Rachel Whiteread - House (London: Phaidon, 1995).

Malim. T. & Birch. A., Introductory Psychology (Macmillan Press, 1998).

Melia. P., David Hockney (Manchester University Press, 1995).

Thomas. N., Possessions - Indigenous Art / Colonial Culture (London: Thames & Hudson, 1999).

Verma. G.K. & Bagley. C., Race, Education and Identity (London: Macmillan Press, 1979).

Woodward. K. "Questioning Identity: Gender, Class, Nation", London: Routledge (2000).